Italy
The migrations of Indo-European people into Italy probably began about 2000 B.C. and continued until 1000 B.C. From about the 9th century B.C. until it was overthrown by the Romans in the 3rd century B.C., the Etruscan civilization was dominant. By 264 B.C., all Italy south of Cisalpine Gaul was under the leadership of Rome. For the next seven centuries, until the barbarian invasions destroyed the western Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., the history of Italy is largely the history of Rome. From 800 on, the Holy Roman Emperors, Roman Catholic popes, Normans, and Saracens all vied for control over various segments of the Italian peninsula. Numerous city-states, whose political and commercial rivalries were intense, and many small principalities flourished in the late Middle Ages. Although Italy remained politically fragmented for centuries, it became the cultural center of the Western world from the 13th to the 16th century.
In 1713, after the War of the Spanish Succession, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia were handed over to the Hapsburgs of Austria, which lost some of its Italian territories in 1735. After 1800, Italy was unified by Napoléon, who crowned himself king of Italy in 1805; but with the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria once again became the dominant power in a disunited Italy. Victor Emmanuel II, king of Sardinia, was proclaimed king of Italy in 1861. The annexation of Venetia in 1866 and of papal Rome in 1870 marked the complete unification of peninsular Italy into one nation under a constitutional monarchy.
Italy declared its neutrality upon the outbreak of World War I on the grounds that Germany had embarked upon an offensive war. In 1915, Italy entered the war on the side of the Allies but obtained less territory than it expected in the postwar settlement. Benito Mussolini organized discontented Italians in 1919 into the Fascist Party. He led his Black Shirts in a march on Rome and, on Oct. 28, 1922, became prime minister. He transformed Italy into a dictatorship, embarking on an expansionist foreign policy with the invasion and annexation of Ethiopia in 1935 and allying himself with Adolf Hitler in the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. When the Allies invaded Italy in 1943, Mussolini's dictatorship collapsed; he was executed by partisans on April 28, 1945, at Dongo on Lake Como.
Italy became an integral member of NATO and the European Economic Community (later the EU) as it successfully rebuilt its postwar economy. Italy was declared officially in recession in November 2008. Italy's economic woes continued into 2011. Despite implementing an aggressive deficit-reduction plan, by summer 2011 Italy was spending 16% of its budget on interest payments, and foreigners held about 800 billion euros ($1.4 trillion) of Italy's debt, a sum greater than that of Greece, Ireland, and Portugal combined. Compounding the problem was years of sluggish growth, which has impeded Italy's ability to reduce its debt.
In 1713, after the War of the Spanish Succession, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia were handed over to the Hapsburgs of Austria, which lost some of its Italian territories in 1735. After 1800, Italy was unified by Napoléon, who crowned himself king of Italy in 1805; but with the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria once again became the dominant power in a disunited Italy. Victor Emmanuel II, king of Sardinia, was proclaimed king of Italy in 1861. The annexation of Venetia in 1866 and of papal Rome in 1870 marked the complete unification of peninsular Italy into one nation under a constitutional monarchy.
Italy declared its neutrality upon the outbreak of World War I on the grounds that Germany had embarked upon an offensive war. In 1915, Italy entered the war on the side of the Allies but obtained less territory than it expected in the postwar settlement. Benito Mussolini organized discontented Italians in 1919 into the Fascist Party. He led his Black Shirts in a march on Rome and, on Oct. 28, 1922, became prime minister. He transformed Italy into a dictatorship, embarking on an expansionist foreign policy with the invasion and annexation of Ethiopia in 1935 and allying himself with Adolf Hitler in the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. When the Allies invaded Italy in 1943, Mussolini's dictatorship collapsed; he was executed by partisans on April 28, 1945, at Dongo on Lake Como.
Italy became an integral member of NATO and the European Economic Community (later the EU) as it successfully rebuilt its postwar economy. Italy was declared officially in recession in November 2008. Italy's economic woes continued into 2011. Despite implementing an aggressive deficit-reduction plan, by summer 2011 Italy was spending 16% of its budget on interest payments, and foreigners held about 800 billion euros ($1.4 trillion) of Italy's debt, a sum greater than that of Greece, Ireland, and Portugal combined. Compounding the problem was years of sluggish growth, which has impeded Italy's ability to reduce its debt.
The Alps
Capri
According to some scholars, the etymology of the name Capri may be traced back to the Greek word Kapros (wild boar). Others believe instead that Capri is derived from the Latin word Capreae (goats). Caesar Augustus was the first to discover the charm of Capri when he visited the island in 29 BC. So taken was he with the island's beauty that he traded the nearby fertile Ischia for it with the city of Naples. He was subsequently followed by his successor Tiberius who embarked on an intense building program between 27 and 37 A.D, resulting in the construction of 12 villas. The first inhabitants to settle in Capri were the Greek "Teleboi" who came to the island in the VIII Century BC. With few natural resources and a population decimated by pirate raids and pestilence, the plight of the islanders was further exacerbated in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries by the rivalry that emerged between the island's two Communes, Capri and Anacapri, regarding their respective civil and ecclesiastic rights of jurisdiction. Following the last heroic disembarkation on the island, the French completed the island's fortifications and remained there until the fall of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815. It was in fact during this time that the island's magical solitude and rustic simplicity first began to attract visitors.
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Blue Grotto
This sea cave was known during the time of ancient Rome, when it is thought that the Blue Grotto was one of Emperor Tiberius' favorite nymphaea, or temples dedicated to sea nymphs. Inside the cavern, a number of statues have been found dating from that period. For many centuries, the Blue Grotto (also known in the past as the Grotta di Gradola) was abandoned, feared by the local sailors because of legends of spirits and demons which inhabited the cave. This changed dramatically on April 18, 1826 when the cave was "rediscovered" by the German writer August Kopisch and painter Ernst Fries, his friend and travel companion, who were taken to the cave by Angelo Ferraro, local fisherman, and notary Giuseppe Pagano. |
Chair Lift
At 589 meters above sea level, Monte Solaro is the highest and most panoramic point on the island of Capri. From its heights, visitors enjoy sweeping views over the Faraglioni rock formations and the center of the town of Capri, and as far afield as the Sorrento Peninsula, the Galli islands, and the whole of the Gulf of Naples. On clear days, you can catch a glipse of the Gulf of Salerno.
The equipment was completely overhauled in 1998 by Sacmif srl and reopened in 1999. In fact, the facility is managed by Sacmif Engineering who also looks after maintenance. The lift has 156 chairs and with an ascent time of 13 minutes allows an opportunity to enjoy a 360 panorama of Capri. After the journey the tourist can relax at the “Canzone del Cielo”, an American bar and solarium open since the fifties.
At 589 meters above sea level, Monte Solaro is the highest and most panoramic point on the island of Capri. From its heights, visitors enjoy sweeping views over the Faraglioni rock formations and the center of the town of Capri, and as far afield as the Sorrento Peninsula, the Galli islands, and the whole of the Gulf of Naples. On clear days, you can catch a glipse of the Gulf of Salerno.
The equipment was completely overhauled in 1998 by Sacmif srl and reopened in 1999. In fact, the facility is managed by Sacmif Engineering who also looks after maintenance. The lift has 156 chairs and with an ascent time of 13 minutes allows an opportunity to enjoy a 360 panorama of Capri. After the journey the tourist can relax at the “Canzone del Cielo”, an American bar and solarium open since the fifties.
Cinque Terre
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The Cinque Terre has been inhabited since the Bronze Age. In the 9th century, the Saracens took over the region and demolished the village here. The local people fled to the hills. In the 11th century, the Tuscan Obertengo family ousted the Saracens. The local tribes moved back to down by the sea, building houses. The villages were under constant threat of pirates, so they built watchtowers. In the 12th century, the region became part of the Republic of Genoa. It was in the 15th century that locals started to call their region the “Cinque Terre.” It was in the 19th century that the Cinque Terre became part of Italy. There are five main towns: Monterosso, Vernazza, Corniglia, Manarola, and Riomaggiore
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Manarola
Manarola is believed to be more ancient than the Romans. The current village dates to the 12th century, when the population grew due to immigration from a village located farther up the mountain. It was here that I recited a poem about the sea. |
Monterosso dates back to the Roman times. It played a significant role in the protection against Longobard attacks.
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Riomaggiore
According to tradition, Riomaggiore was founded in the 7th century by a group of Greek refugees. The urban center shifted toward the coastline, and the area became ruled by various feudal families. |
Vernazza
Vernazza also dates back to the Roman age, but until 1000 B.C. the population lived inland due to security reasons. During the Middle Ages, Vernazza was an important harbor town. We watched the sun set over the sea here. Vernazza |
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Florence
It was founded in 59 BC by Julius Caesar, who named the settlement Florentia (meaning “flourishing”), and designated it as a haven for retired military veterans. In fact, the city was designed in the manner of a military camp, a pattern that's still evident in the city center today. Because Florence is situated on fertile, farmable land, and located on a major travel route between northern Italy and Rome, it grew steadily from a small Roman settlement to a bustling commercial center. By the 3rd century AD, it was established as the capital of Tuscany (then called Tuscia), but its growing significance soon became a detriment. Around the beginning of the 4th century, the Byzantines and the German Ostrogoths were competing for the control of Italy, and Florence was one of the cities they continually fought over, causing such destruction that the population was, according to legend, reduced to fewer than 1,000 people. But in the 6th century, peace was restored under Lombard rule, and the population continued to increase and prosper under the rule of Charlemagne in 774.
By the 10th century, Florence was on a strong and steady ascent towards prosperity. Despite the political strife of the early 14th century, Florence continued to prosper, and in 1252, minted its own gold currency - the 'florin'. The city became a powerful banking hub. The powerful Medici banking family ruled the city from behind the scenes, and also found fame as prominent patrons of the arts.The Medici family had been entrenched in Florentine politics from around the 1430s. In 1527, the Florentine government finally expelled the Medici and re-established a republic. But the family employed the support of both the Emperor and the Pope to declare war on Florence, and, and after two attempts to regain power, became hereditary dukes of Florence in 1537. In 1569, they became the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, ruling the territory for the following two centuries.
In 1737, Tuscany became a territory of Austria, and was later ruled by France and the kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. After unification in 1861, Tuscany became a province of the Kingdom of Italy. Florence enjoyed a short period as the capital of Italy, replacing Turin in 1865 and hosting the country's first parliament, but was superseded by Rome in 1871 following its addition to the kingdom. Today Florence continues to thrive as a banking power, as well as a city of great historical and artistic significance. Finance and tourism fuel the city's economic growth.
By the 10th century, Florence was on a strong and steady ascent towards prosperity. Despite the political strife of the early 14th century, Florence continued to prosper, and in 1252, minted its own gold currency - the 'florin'. The city became a powerful banking hub. The powerful Medici banking family ruled the city from behind the scenes, and also found fame as prominent patrons of the arts.The Medici family had been entrenched in Florentine politics from around the 1430s. In 1527, the Florentine government finally expelled the Medici and re-established a republic. But the family employed the support of both the Emperor and the Pope to declare war on Florence, and, and after two attempts to regain power, became hereditary dukes of Florence in 1537. In 1569, they became the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, ruling the territory for the following two centuries.
In 1737, Tuscany became a territory of Austria, and was later ruled by France and the kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. After unification in 1861, Tuscany became a province of the Kingdom of Italy. Florence enjoyed a short period as the capital of Italy, replacing Turin in 1865 and hosting the country's first parliament, but was superseded by Rome in 1871 following its addition to the kingdom. Today Florence continues to thrive as a banking power, as well as a city of great historical and artistic significance. Finance and tourism fuel the city's economic growth.
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Cathedral of Florence
The typical Italian Gothic building, the Cathedral of Florence, is dedicated to "Santa Maria del Fiore". Finished around 1367, the Cathedral was completely covered by colored marbles like the earlier Baptistery, except for the facade that remained unfinished and was terminated only in the 19th century. The project left unfinished also the Dome, since in 1421 only the frame (polygonal base) had been erected. Two architects, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi won the competition although it was the latter who actually built the dome, in 1436. |
Palazzo Vecchio
Built at the turn between the 13th and 14th centuries as the seat of the Priors, the oldest part of Palazzo Vecchio was originally designed by Arnolfo di Cambio. The later additions of the 15th and above all of the 16th centuries changed the scale of the rear part of the palace. Various statues are lined up in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, including a copy of Michelangelo's David, that replaced the original in 1873, Initially, the seat of the Signoria was provisionally used by the Grand Ducal family until 11050 when Cosimo I de Medici moved the residence to the newly built Palazzo Pitti. He sumptuously redecorated the newly reconstructed interiors taking into account the new role of the palace, which was to be used both as seat of the government and as official residence of the ruling family. The most important rooms of the palace are illustrated in sequence.
Built at the turn between the 13th and 14th centuries as the seat of the Priors, the oldest part of Palazzo Vecchio was originally designed by Arnolfo di Cambio. The later additions of the 15th and above all of the 16th centuries changed the scale of the rear part of the palace. Various statues are lined up in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, including a copy of Michelangelo's David, that replaced the original in 1873, Initially, the seat of the Signoria was provisionally used by the Grand Ducal family until 11050 when Cosimo I de Medici moved the residence to the newly built Palazzo Pitti. He sumptuously redecorated the newly reconstructed interiors taking into account the new role of the palace, which was to be used both as seat of the government and as official residence of the ruling family. The most important rooms of the palace are illustrated in sequence.
Ponte Vecchio
When the Medici moved from Palazzo Vecchio to Palazzo Pitti, they decided they needed a connecting route from the Uffizi to the Palazzo Pitti on the other side of the Arno that would enable them to keep out of contact with the people they ruled. The result was the Corridoio Vasariano, built in 1565 by Giorgio Vasari and which runs above the little goldsmiths' shops on the Ponte Vecchio. There have been shops on Ponte Vecchio since the 13th century. Initially, there were all types of shops, including butchers and fishmongers and, later, tanners, whose "industrial waste" caused a pretty rank stench in the area. In 1593, Ferdinand I decreed that only goldsmiths and jewelers be allowed to have their shops on the bridge in order to improve the well-being of all, including their own as they walked over the bridge. Built very close to the Roman crossing, the Ponte Vecchio, or Old Bridge, was until 1218 the only bridge across the Arno in Florence. The current bridge was rebuilt after a flood in 1345. During World War II it was the only bridge across the Arno that the fleeing Germans did not destroy. Instead they blocked access by demolishing the medieval buildings on each side.
When the Medici moved from Palazzo Vecchio to Palazzo Pitti, they decided they needed a connecting route from the Uffizi to the Palazzo Pitti on the other side of the Arno that would enable them to keep out of contact with the people they ruled. The result was the Corridoio Vasariano, built in 1565 by Giorgio Vasari and which runs above the little goldsmiths' shops on the Ponte Vecchio. There have been shops on Ponte Vecchio since the 13th century. Initially, there were all types of shops, including butchers and fishmongers and, later, tanners, whose "industrial waste" caused a pretty rank stench in the area. In 1593, Ferdinand I decreed that only goldsmiths and jewelers be allowed to have their shops on the bridge in order to improve the well-being of all, including their own as they walked over the bridge. Built very close to the Roman crossing, the Ponte Vecchio, or Old Bridge, was until 1218 the only bridge across the Arno in Florence. The current bridge was rebuilt after a flood in 1345. During World War II it was the only bridge across the Arno that the fleeing Germans did not destroy. Instead they blocked access by demolishing the medieval buildings on each side.
Piazzale Michaelangelo
Designed in 1869 by Florentine architect Giuseppe Poggi, it was created as part of major restructuring of the city walls in 1869, Poggi's terrace is typically 19th century. Poggi designed a monument base dedicated to Michelangelo, where copies of Michelangelo's works, including the David and Medici chapel sculptures from San Lorenzo would be displayed. For some reason, Poggi's project was not realized as it was intended. The building that was to be a museum is now a restaurant. On the Piazzale is the Basilica of San Miniato al Monte, built between the XI and XIII century, and located on one of the highest places in Florence. Next to it the greater altar rises above the crypt, the most ancient part of the church. This is supposed to contain the remains of "San Miniato", the first martyr of Florence, who was probably a Greek merchant. Once arrived in Florence he began to live as a hermit. The legend tells that he had been beheaded by the Roman Empire during anti-Christian persecutions but he walked away through Florence afterwards holding his head in his hands ending up in the place where the church was then built.
Designed in 1869 by Florentine architect Giuseppe Poggi, it was created as part of major restructuring of the city walls in 1869, Poggi's terrace is typically 19th century. Poggi designed a monument base dedicated to Michelangelo, where copies of Michelangelo's works, including the David and Medici chapel sculptures from San Lorenzo would be displayed. For some reason, Poggi's project was not realized as it was intended. The building that was to be a museum is now a restaurant. On the Piazzale is the Basilica of San Miniato al Monte, built between the XI and XIII century, and located on one of the highest places in Florence. Next to it the greater altar rises above the crypt, the most ancient part of the church. This is supposed to contain the remains of "San Miniato", the first martyr of Florence, who was probably a Greek merchant. Once arrived in Florence he began to live as a hermit. The legend tells that he had been beheaded by the Roman Empire during anti-Christian persecutions but he walked away through Florence afterwards holding his head in his hands ending up in the place where the church was then built.
Milan
Over the centuries, the Celts, Romans, Goths, Lombards, Spaniards, and Austrian have ruled Milan. Throughout history, the city has been the economic and cultural center of Italy. Milan’s history began in 400 B.C., when Gauls settled there and chasing out the Celts. In 222 B.C., the city was conquered and annexed to the Roman Empire and renamed Mediolanum. It became a cultural center for early Christianity.
The Lombards conquered the city in 569 A.D. The Church became very powerful under the Lombards, and in 1000 the archbishop of Milan was the most powerful person in Northern Italy. Originally there was a democratic government, but that came to an end when the Milanese Visconti family seized power and established feudalism. After the last Visconti duke died, the Sforza family took over. In the 16th century, the Spanish empire took over the city.
The European wars of the 18th century caused power to shift again, this time to Austria. Napoleon briefly took the city, but it was returned to Austria when he was defeated. In 1859, Milan was annexed into the Kingdom of Italy. The fascist party was founded in Milan in 1919, and after World War ii the city became a major financial center.
The Lombards conquered the city in 569 A.D. The Church became very powerful under the Lombards, and in 1000 the archbishop of Milan was the most powerful person in Northern Italy. Originally there was a democratic government, but that came to an end when the Milanese Visconti family seized power and established feudalism. After the last Visconti duke died, the Sforza family took over. In the 16th century, the Spanish empire took over the city.
The European wars of the 18th century caused power to shift again, this time to Austria. Napoleon briefly took the city, but it was returned to Austria when he was defeated. In 1859, Milan was annexed into the Kingdom of Italy. The fascist party was founded in Milan in 1919, and after World War ii the city became a major financial center.
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Castello Sforzesco
Castello Sforzesco is Milan’s most famous monument. Francesco Sforza reconstructed it in the 15th century. It has been a representation of the Dukes of Sforzesco’s power throughout the years. The great artists of the Renaissance, Donato Bramante and Leonardo da Vinci helped to decorate the castle. When the Spanish took over Milan, it became a fort. After the Spanish left, the castle remained a fort under the Austrians. Most of the outer fortifications were destroyed when Napoleon was in charge. When Milan became part of the Kingdom of Italy, the castle was transferred to the city of Milan, which undertook restoration works. |
Duomo di Milano
Duomo di Milano (Milan Cathedral) is one of the most famous and complex Gothic constructions of the world. It is the second highest church in the world, and the third greatest cathedral. Napoleon wanted to be crowned king of Italy here. It suffered some damage in World War II, but was restored.
Duomo di Milano (Milan Cathedral) is one of the most famous and complex Gothic constructions of the world. It is the second highest church in the world, and the third greatest cathedral. Napoleon wanted to be crowned king of Italy here. It suffered some damage in World War II, but was restored.
Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II
Beside the Cathedral is a shopping mall, the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II. It is one of the world's oldest shopping malls. It is named after the first king of the Kingdom of Italy, who laid the first stone on March 7, 1865. It was designed in 1861 and built between 1865-1877. It is formed like a Latin cross. A triumphal arch frames the entrance. Inside the shopping mall are all the stores for the major designers: Prada, Gucci, Mercedes-Benz, and more. If you find the bull and put our heel on it and spin around. Stepping with the heel of your foot on the bull is supposed to bring good luck |
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Montepulciano
On the Hill of Poliziano, there was a temple dedicated to Mercury from which it took the name Mons Mercurius. The presence of many Etruscan remains indicates that Montepulciano's outskirts have been inhabited since that period. Based on tradition, Montepulciano, was founded by Porsenna, king of the Etruscans. According to some scholars, the fact that the temple which was set up on the location of the present Fortress and which was dedicated to St. Donatus in 361 implies that this place was not inhabited during the Roman period. It was possibly not inhabited until the 6 C when the population of Chiusi arrived, having been put to flight by barbarian invasions. Evidence for the existence of this town appeared for the first time in a document of 715 where it is clearly named as "Mons Politianus". The inhabitants did not like Siena which was always perceived to be their enemy and in 1202 they swore fidelity to Florence. In 1266, Montepulciano put itself under the protection of Carlo I d' Angi to throw off the yoke of Siena. In 1358, ever the enemy of Siena, Montepulciano formed an alliance with Perugia and defeated the Siennese army. In 1511 Montepulciano fell definitively to Florence. When Montalcino, Radicofani, Buonconvento and Pienza were on the point of defending Siena's freedom against the Medicis' domination, Montepulciano was named by Cosmo I Medici a "noble town". Montepulciano could not tolerate Siena's domination because it felt at the same level as Siena in terms of culture, power and civilization. Unfortunately after 1511, it suffered a slow economic and social decline, and at one point in the 18th century the Granduke of Tuscany Pietro Leopoldo became concerned, and looked into ways to give back some life to the very prestigious center that had started to decay. In the 19th century the drainage of the Valdichiana renewed the importance of the city and it became the administration center of the area signaling an appreciable revitalization. However this did not last beyond the middle of the 20th century. A population loss in the valley due to immigration to the north of many farmers who were transformed into the workforce for factories, and the changing ways of cultivating the land, which has not been completely compensated for by a similar growth of the small and medium industrial businesses.
Duomo
Where the Cathedral stands today, there was an ancient parish church which came to be considered to be inadequate and bare when beautiful buildings were built in Piazza Grande and the nearby streets. In 1583 the ancient sacristy began being pulled down and, after much debate, Bartolomeo Ammannati was asked to provide a new design which was ready in 1588. However, some years passed before work began. Meanwhile, Ammannati died. In 1593 Ippolito Scalza, a sculptor and architect of Orvieto, was employed. He adjusted the design and most probably completely rearranged the plan. In 1594, construction began and in 1680 the church was consecrated. However, the facade was never finished.
Where the Cathedral stands today, there was an ancient parish church which came to be considered to be inadequate and bare when beautiful buildings were built in Piazza Grande and the nearby streets. In 1583 the ancient sacristy began being pulled down and, after much debate, Bartolomeo Ammannati was asked to provide a new design which was ready in 1588. However, some years passed before work began. Meanwhile, Ammannati died. In 1593 Ippolito Scalza, a sculptor and architect of Orvieto, was employed. He adjusted the design and most probably completely rearranged the plan. In 1594, construction began and in 1680 the church was consecrated. However, the facade was never finished.
Montepulciano Palazzo Comunale
The Town Hall with its beautiful central tower dates back to the 16 C and brings to mind the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. It is a simple building with Guelph merlons and solid corbels. In the lower part, the ashlar-work is irregular and rough, in contrast to the openings of the rectangular windows which are present in the upper level in a regular rhythm. From the tower you can admire a beautiful panorama during clear and bright days.
The Town Hall with its beautiful central tower dates back to the 16 C and brings to mind the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. It is a simple building with Guelph merlons and solid corbels. In the lower part, the ashlar-work is irregular and rough, in contrast to the openings of the rectangular windows which are present in the upper level in a regular rhythm. From the tower you can admire a beautiful panorama during clear and bright days.
Vino Nobile di Montepulciano
The first historical document which refers to the wines of Montepulciano goes all the way back to the year 780 A.D. They were already widely known and appreciated during the Medici epoch in Florence, when the city of Montepulciano was allied with Florence against Siena. Theirs were wines for the nobility, and noble were the grapes selected for making them: this is probably the source of the name of most highly prized wine which was produced. In 1966 Vino Nobile di Montepulciano was one of the first Italian wines to gain appellation status (DOC).
The fermenting cellars contain temperature-controlled stainless steel fermenting tanks of various sizes equipped with the most advanced technology for the various phases of the transformation of the grapes: temperature control to either chill or heat the grapes, automatic systems for either the pumping over of the cap of skins inside the tanks or for délestage (“rack and return”) extraction techniques. The aging cellars, completely sunk below ground level, are divided into two spaces for barrels and for casks. Despite their recent construction and the fact that they are equipped with the most sophisticated technology for constant circulation of the air and proper levels of humidity, they manage as well to create that special atmosphere of slow passage of time which only the oldest cellars are able transmit. They house both 60 gallon and 130 gallon barrels and larger casks of different sizes coopered from various types of oak: French, American, and Hungarian are all used according to the personality of the wine they will contain.
The first historical document which refers to the wines of Montepulciano goes all the way back to the year 780 A.D. They were already widely known and appreciated during the Medici epoch in Florence, when the city of Montepulciano was allied with Florence against Siena. Theirs were wines for the nobility, and noble were the grapes selected for making them: this is probably the source of the name of most highly prized wine which was produced. In 1966 Vino Nobile di Montepulciano was one of the first Italian wines to gain appellation status (DOC).
The fermenting cellars contain temperature-controlled stainless steel fermenting tanks of various sizes equipped with the most advanced technology for the various phases of the transformation of the grapes: temperature control to either chill or heat the grapes, automatic systems for either the pumping over of the cap of skins inside the tanks or for délestage (“rack and return”) extraction techniques. The aging cellars, completely sunk below ground level, are divided into two spaces for barrels and for casks. Despite their recent construction and the fact that they are equipped with the most sophisticated technology for constant circulation of the air and proper levels of humidity, they manage as well to create that special atmosphere of slow passage of time which only the oldest cellars are able transmit. They house both 60 gallon and 130 gallon barrels and larger casks of different sizes coopered from various types of oak: French, American, and Hungarian are all used according to the personality of the wine they will contain.
Mt. Vesuvius
Despite its age, Vesuvius is still regarded as an active volcano. It is intensely monitored for activity, as about 3 million people live within range of its eruptions. Vesuvius is classified as a stratovolcano, also known as a composite cone. Statovolcanoes are dangerous due to their highly variable content, and eruptive style. Plinian eruptions, which Mount Vesuvius has produced, result in plumes of ash ascending up into the stratosphere, high above the earth's surface. Mount Vesuvius can produce both eruptions of ash and pyroclastic flows, making it unique. Even though all of this can be dangerous to humans, volcanoes like Vesuvius are important in the lifecycles of rocks on Earth. The last known eruption of Vesuvius was on April 4, 1944 during World War II. The war raged on, as Allied planes were temporarily grounded by the eruption. After that activity, the eruptions that took place about every seven years between 1631 and 1944 largely stopped. The cycle seemed to have ended in 1944, however the volcano is still active. It's very difficult to tell when the next eruption will happen, but the city of Naples may be affected.
Ostia Antica
Tradition says that Ostia was founded by Ancus Marcius, the 4th king of Rome, who lived during the second half of the 7th century B.C., even if - till today - there is little archeological evidence corroborating such information. However, it seems that during the Regal period there was a built-up area near the mouth of the Tiber, where there were some salt marshes producing salt: a priceless and essential wealth. Ostia Antica is an extraordinary Roman site that contains the ruins of the ancient port town that served as the gateway to Rome. Tracing its roots back to at least the 4th century BC, Ostia Antica served as Rome’s principle port for hundreds of years, a witness and monument to the rise of the ancient superpower, its dominance and eventual decline. Ostia Antica's place in history is most notable for an attack by pirates in 68BC which led to unprecedented powers being handed to Pompey the Great, setting yet another precedent which damaged the foundations of the Republican system. As the landscape changed over the centuries, Ostia Antica was slowly abandoned, and the site is now a couple of miles from the sea. Today, visitors can view a great many ruins from the ancient town, including a well preserved Roman theatre, the Baths of Neptune, remains of the military camp, temples to ancient deities, the forum and even Ostia Synagogue, which is the oldest known synagogue site in Europe.
Castle of Pope Julius II
The castle of Julius II is located in Ostia Antica, close to Rome. The Castle of Ostia has been built originally for defending the territory. It was been built in a triangular shape with the base facing towards the sea. In the past centuries, the mouth of the Tiber River was in fact quite close to the walls of the castle. The primary role of the castle had been defending the coast. The castle was built by joining with walls three towers, the oldest of whom was the Martin V, a tower that already existed in the location where the castle was built and that was ordered to be renewed and restored.
Baccio Pontelli, a noted architect had been entrusted with the task of building the castle with the help of another famous architect, Giuliano from Sangallo. The construction of the castle was finished in the year 1484 under the direction of Cardinal Della Rovere and has been testified by the inscription found on the marble architrave on the central portal. Over the centuries, the castle had been used as a residence for the popes. During the 17th and the 18th centuries, the town had been abandoned along with the castle and for years it had been used for depositing hay and as a dormitory for the prisoners who had been employed digging the lands in the territory.
The castle today has four towers from where the Martin V tower can be viewed. The tower forms the donjon on which the Popes coats of arms can be seen who had made several improvements on the castle building. The coat of arms of Sisto IV can also be seen along with that of Julius II and also of Pope Innocent VIII. The entire structure is surrounded by a moat.
The castle of Julius II is located in Ostia Antica, close to Rome. The Castle of Ostia has been built originally for defending the territory. It was been built in a triangular shape with the base facing towards the sea. In the past centuries, the mouth of the Tiber River was in fact quite close to the walls of the castle. The primary role of the castle had been defending the coast. The castle was built by joining with walls three towers, the oldest of whom was the Martin V, a tower that already existed in the location where the castle was built and that was ordered to be renewed and restored.
Baccio Pontelli, a noted architect had been entrusted with the task of building the castle with the help of another famous architect, Giuliano from Sangallo. The construction of the castle was finished in the year 1484 under the direction of Cardinal Della Rovere and has been testified by the inscription found on the marble architrave on the central portal. Over the centuries, the castle had been used as a residence for the popes. During the 17th and the 18th centuries, the town had been abandoned along with the castle and for years it had been used for depositing hay and as a dormitory for the prisoners who had been employed digging the lands in the territory.
The castle today has four towers from where the Martin V tower can be viewed. The tower forms the donjon on which the Popes coats of arms can be seen who had made several improvements on the castle building. The coat of arms of Sisto IV can also be seen along with that of Julius II and also of Pope Innocent VIII. The entire structure is surrounded by a moat.
Ruins of Ostia Antica
Ostia, at the mouth (ostium) of the Tiber River, was founded around 620 B.C.; its central attraction was the salt gleaned from nearby salt flats, which served as a precious meat preserver. Later, around 400 B.C., Rome conquered Ostia and made it a naval base, complete with a fort. By A.D. 150, when Rome controlled all the Mediterranean, Ostia served as its busy commercial port. With the fall of Rome, the port was abandoned. Over time the harbor silted up.
You can stroll among the ruins and trace the grid standard for Roman military towns: a rectangular fort with east, west, north, and south gates and two main roads converging on the Forum. Walking along the main drag, Decumanus Maximus, you can identify buildings from the Republic (centuries before Christ) and the Empire (centuries after Christ) by their level. Over the centuries, Ostia’s ground-level rose, and the road was elevated. On the main drag you’ll see the vast theater (teatro). One of the oldest brick theaters anywhere, it’s still used for concerts today. The three rows of marble steps near the orchestra used to be for big shots. Just in front of the theater is the grand Square of the Guilds, the former bustling center of Rome’s import/export industry, with more than 60 offices of ship-owners and traders. Along the sidewalk, second-century A.D. mosaics advertise the services offered by the various shops — a lighthouse symbolizes the port of Ostia and an elephant marks the office of traders from Africa.
Ostia, at the mouth (ostium) of the Tiber River, was founded around 620 B.C.; its central attraction was the salt gleaned from nearby salt flats, which served as a precious meat preserver. Later, around 400 B.C., Rome conquered Ostia and made it a naval base, complete with a fort. By A.D. 150, when Rome controlled all the Mediterranean, Ostia served as its busy commercial port. With the fall of Rome, the port was abandoned. Over time the harbor silted up.
You can stroll among the ruins and trace the grid standard for Roman military towns: a rectangular fort with east, west, north, and south gates and two main roads converging on the Forum. Walking along the main drag, Decumanus Maximus, you can identify buildings from the Republic (centuries before Christ) and the Empire (centuries after Christ) by their level. Over the centuries, Ostia’s ground-level rose, and the road was elevated. On the main drag you’ll see the vast theater (teatro). One of the oldest brick theaters anywhere, it’s still used for concerts today. The three rows of marble steps near the orchestra used to be for big shots. Just in front of the theater is the grand Square of the Guilds, the former bustling center of Rome’s import/export industry, with more than 60 offices of ship-owners and traders. Along the sidewalk, second-century A.D. mosaics advertise the services offered by the various shops — a lighthouse symbolizes the port of Ostia and an elephant marks the office of traders from Africa.
Pompeii
Pompeii is located in the region of Campania in the province of Naples, situated along Italy's southwestern coast. The settlement grew rapidly during the 7th century BC because the area was a crossroads connecting the ancient cities of Cumae, Stabiae and Nola. Its primary agricultural products were wine and oil, and it was also an important seaport, handling goods imported for distribution in Rome and the surrounding areas. During its existence, Pompeii was under the control of several governments. Despite being captured by the Greeks, Etruscans, and later the Romans, the people of Pompeii managed to retain their language and their local government. Pompeii remained loyal to Rome until 91 BC, at which point Rome sent in generals and other military officials to quell the rebellion.
The eruption that destroyed Pompeii was by far the most powerful, not to mention the most famous of Mt Vesuvius’s eruptions. Simultaneously destroying the city and preserving it, the eruption killed anywhere from 15,000 to 30,000 people in Pompeii and the neighboring towns of Herculaneum and Torre Annunziata. Residents fled toward the coast in an attempt to escape the volcano's lava, and approximately ten feet of ash and rock buried the city in its entirety. As well as preserving wall paintings, jars and other artifacts, the lava captured people sitting at tables or frozen in their final act as living beings.
The eruption that destroyed Pompeii was by far the most powerful, not to mention the most famous of Mt Vesuvius’s eruptions. Simultaneously destroying the city and preserving it, the eruption killed anywhere from 15,000 to 30,000 people in Pompeii and the neighboring towns of Herculaneum and Torre Annunziata. Residents fled toward the coast in an attempt to escape the volcano's lava, and approximately ten feet of ash and rock buried the city in its entirety. As well as preserving wall paintings, jars and other artifacts, the lava captured people sitting at tables or frozen in their final act as living beings.
The Ruins
The ruins of Pompeii were first discovered by workmen in 1599, but it wasn't until 1874 that the Bourbon rulers of southern Italy instigated a serious campaign to uncover the site. Following increased activity in 1806-1815, excavation was sporadic until the unification of Italy in 1861, at which point it once again became a methodical operation. In 1863, an important development occurred on the site. When his workers informed the director that they'd discovered bones inside several cavities, he ordered them to stop work and arranged for a mixture of plaster and water to be poured into the holes. When the plaster dried and was removed, it revealed the clearly defined forms of four dead bodies, even capturing the expressions on their faces. From that point on, a large number of plaster casts were made of the Pompeii victims. Today, visitors come from all areas of the globe to view Pompeii's remains.
The ruins of Pompeii were first discovered by workmen in 1599, but it wasn't until 1874 that the Bourbon rulers of southern Italy instigated a serious campaign to uncover the site. Following increased activity in 1806-1815, excavation was sporadic until the unification of Italy in 1861, at which point it once again became a methodical operation. In 1863, an important development occurred on the site. When his workers informed the director that they'd discovered bones inside several cavities, he ordered them to stop work and arranged for a mixture of plaster and water to be poured into the holes. When the plaster dried and was removed, it revealed the clearly defined forms of four dead bodies, even capturing the expressions on their faces. From that point on, a large number of plaster casts were made of the Pompeii victims. Today, visitors come from all areas of the globe to view Pompeii's remains.
Rome
Rome’s ancient history is mired in legend. The most famous of all is the story of Romulus and Remus, the mythical twins who are said to have founded Rome on 21 April 753 BC. The babies, Romulus and Remus were abandoned but found and suckled by a she-wolf until discovered by a shepherd. The twins decided to found a city on the site where they’d originally been saved. But as they didn’t know where this was they consulted the omens. The twins got in an argument and Romulus killed his brother, Remus. To populate the city, Romulus created a refuge to which a ragtag population of criminals, ex-slaves and outlaws soon decamped. Romulus invited everyone in the surrounding country to celebrate the Festival of Consus (21 August), where he and his men pounced and abducted all the women. The Sabine men attacked, but Romulus repulsed the attack. At this time, Rome was ruled by a series of kings. Few historians accept the myth as historical fact, but most accept that the city was founded as an amalgamation of Etruscan, Latin and Sabine settlements.
In AD 64 up to 70% of Rome was destroyed by fire. According to the historian Suetonius, the fire raged for six days and seven nights. In the city’s gutted lanes, rumors spread that Nero had used the burning city as a backdrop for a play on the fall of Troy, or even that he had started the fire in order to build a vast new city called Neropolis. In an attempt to deflect criticism, Nero blamed Rome’s Christians for the fire. A savage persecution ensued and thousands were killed. Among the victims were St Peter and St Paul. The Roman Republic conquered most of the rest of Italy, then turned its attentions overseas, and by the 1st century BC, ruled Spain, North Africa and Greece. Julius Caesar ruled for a time as dictator, and his nephew Octavian became Rome's first emperor, assuming the title Augustus. During the reign of Augustus, Christ was born, and though Christians were persecuted until the 4th century, the new religion took hold and Rome became the main center of Christianity. Later, Rome was fell to the invasion of the Guals. After the fall of Rome, the papacy took power. In the 8th century Pope Stephen II allied with the Frankish king, Pepin the Short, to drive the Lombards out of Italy and incorporate their holdings into the newly created Papal States. The relationship between the Church and the Frankish kings was further cemented when Leo III crowned Pepin’s son, Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor in 800. Largely destroyed in the Middle Ages, Rome was rebuilt in the Renaissance.
Rome did not suffer unduly during WWI but Italy did, losing 600, 000 men. A new class of super-rich industrial barons emerged, but the bulk of the population struggled in penury as the economy floundered. Unemployment was widespread and inflation out of control. In 1921 Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. His parliamentary support was limited but on 28 October 1922 he marched on Rome with 40, 000 black-shirted followers. The march was largely symbolic but it had the desired effect. Fearful of civil war between the Fascists and Socialists, King Vittorio Emanuele III invited Mussolini to form a government. During WWII, Rome suffered, first at the hands of its own Fascist regime, then, after Mussolini was ousted in 1943, at the hands of the Nazis. Rome was liberated from German occupation on 4 June 1944. Rome prospered in the late 1950s and 1960s – an era marked by urban expansion, growing middle-class wealth and a taste for internationalism. The 1970s and '80s were marked by an economic growth that was sorely undone in the '90s by rising unemployment, a floundering lira and major government corruption scandals.
In AD 64 up to 70% of Rome was destroyed by fire. According to the historian Suetonius, the fire raged for six days and seven nights. In the city’s gutted lanes, rumors spread that Nero had used the burning city as a backdrop for a play on the fall of Troy, or even that he had started the fire in order to build a vast new city called Neropolis. In an attempt to deflect criticism, Nero blamed Rome’s Christians for the fire. A savage persecution ensued and thousands were killed. Among the victims were St Peter and St Paul. The Roman Republic conquered most of the rest of Italy, then turned its attentions overseas, and by the 1st century BC, ruled Spain, North Africa and Greece. Julius Caesar ruled for a time as dictator, and his nephew Octavian became Rome's first emperor, assuming the title Augustus. During the reign of Augustus, Christ was born, and though Christians were persecuted until the 4th century, the new religion took hold and Rome became the main center of Christianity. Later, Rome was fell to the invasion of the Guals. After the fall of Rome, the papacy took power. In the 8th century Pope Stephen II allied with the Frankish king, Pepin the Short, to drive the Lombards out of Italy and incorporate their holdings into the newly created Papal States. The relationship between the Church and the Frankish kings was further cemented when Leo III crowned Pepin’s son, Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor in 800. Largely destroyed in the Middle Ages, Rome was rebuilt in the Renaissance.
Rome did not suffer unduly during WWI but Italy did, losing 600, 000 men. A new class of super-rich industrial barons emerged, but the bulk of the population struggled in penury as the economy floundered. Unemployment was widespread and inflation out of control. In 1921 Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. His parliamentary support was limited but on 28 October 1922 he marched on Rome with 40, 000 black-shirted followers. The march was largely symbolic but it had the desired effect. Fearful of civil war between the Fascists and Socialists, King Vittorio Emanuele III invited Mussolini to form a government. During WWII, Rome suffered, first at the hands of its own Fascist regime, then, after Mussolini was ousted in 1943, at the hands of the Nazis. Rome was liberated from German occupation on 4 June 1944. Rome prospered in the late 1950s and 1960s – an era marked by urban expansion, growing middle-class wealth and a taste for internationalism. The 1970s and '80s were marked by an economic growth that was sorely undone in the '90s by rising unemployment, a floundering lira and major government corruption scandals.
Basilica of Sant'Andrea Della Valle
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Basilica of St. John in Laterno
The cathedral was originally dedicated to the Savior, but was later dedicated to St. John the Baptist and the apostle St. John the Evangelist. Constantine I obtained the estate in the fourth century when he wed Fausta, the sister of Emperor Maxentius. In 313, after the edict of Milan granted freedom of religion to Roman citizens, Constantine leased the property to Pope Melchiades, who organized the first synod of Bishops in 'domo Faustae in Laterano'. From that point on, the Domus Faustae - which became known first as the Patriarchium and later as the Lateran Palace - was the official residence of the pope, until the papacy moved to Avignon in 1309. A first basilica was built in 314, at the site of the former stables of Emperor Septimius Severus, right next to the Lateran Palace. It was consecrated ten years later by Pope Sylvester I. In 896 it was damaged by an earthquake but once again it was soon rebuilt. In 1308 disaster struck yet again when both the church and the Lateran Palace were severely damaged by fire. Another fire in 1360 left the church in ruin. A round of renovations started but in 1377, when the popes returned from their exile in Avignon, the Lateran complex was declared uninhabitable, so they moved to the Vatican. The basilica meanwhile, despite its crumbling state, remained Rome's principal cathedral. The church we see today dates back to 1646-1666 when pope Innocent X commissioned the architect Francesco Borromini to restore the basilica which was about to collapse. Of the original basilica, only the floor from the fifteenth century and a section of the sixteenth-century ceiling were kept intact. Borromini did however integrate some of the artwork of the fourth-century basilica in the aisles. |
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Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
Santa Maria Maggiore stands on the site of a temple to the goddess Cybele. According to a 13th-century legend, the first church was built here by Pope Liberius (352-66), on the site of an apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The legend has it that the Virgin appeared to Pope Liberius and the patrician Giovanni Patrizio on August 4, 352 (or 358), instructing them to build a church on the Esquiline Hill. That night, the floor plan was outlined by a miraculous snowfall. Archaeological evidence, on the other hand, indicates that the church was probably first built in the early 400s and completed under Pope Sixtus III (432-440). It was named Santa Maria Maggiore (St. Mary Major) because it is the largest of the 26 churches in Rome dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Santa Maria Maggiore was fully restored and renovated in the 18th century - the facade and most of the interior decorations date from this period. Today, the basilica is served by Redemptorist and Dominican fathers and remains very popular with pilgrims and tourists alike. |
Bioparco di Roma
Bioparco di Roma is a 17-hectare (42-acre) zoological garden located on part of the original Villa Borghese estate in Rome, Italy. There are 1,114 animals of 222 species maintained. The zoo was conceived in 1908 to hold exotic animal species for exhibition. It was opened on 5 January 1911. The zoo was designed by Carl Hagenbeck. The park was built in the style of that in Hamburg: ditches and pits instead of bars, and generous green spaces.
Bioparco di Roma is a 17-hectare (42-acre) zoological garden located on part of the original Villa Borghese estate in Rome, Italy. There are 1,114 animals of 222 species maintained. The zoo was conceived in 1908 to hold exotic animal species for exhibition. It was opened on 5 January 1911. The zoo was designed by Carl Hagenbeck. The park was built in the style of that in Hamburg: ditches and pits instead of bars, and generous green spaces.
Bocca della Verita
Historians aren't quite certain what the original purpose of the disc was. It was possibly used as a drain cover in the nearby Temple of Hercules Invictus, which had an oculus - a round open space in the middle of the roof, similar to that of the Pantheon, hence it could rain inside. It is also thought that cattle merchants used it to drain the blood of cattle sacrificed to the god Hercules. The face probably depicts the face of the sea god Oceanus. The marble disc is now famous for the medieval legend that is associated with it. People believed that the mouth of the marble face would close if anyone put his hand in it and told a lie. Therefore it was used as some sort of lie detector. Those who were accused of committing perjury or adultery were brought here. They had to swear under oath and then put their hand into the mouth. According to the legend it was even used during the Middle Ages as a trial by ordeal. An executioner would hide behind the disc with a sharp sword ready to strike.
Historians aren't quite certain what the original purpose of the disc was. It was possibly used as a drain cover in the nearby Temple of Hercules Invictus, which had an oculus - a round open space in the middle of the roof, similar to that of the Pantheon, hence it could rain inside. It is also thought that cattle merchants used it to drain the blood of cattle sacrificed to the god Hercules. The face probably depicts the face of the sea god Oceanus. The marble disc is now famous for the medieval legend that is associated with it. People believed that the mouth of the marble face would close if anyone put his hand in it and told a lie. Therefore it was used as some sort of lie detector. Those who were accused of committing perjury or adultery were brought here. They had to swear under oath and then put their hand into the mouth. According to the legend it was even used during the Middle Ages as a trial by ordeal. An executioner would hide behind the disc with a sharp sword ready to strike.
Capitoline Hill
The Capitoline Hill is the smallest and most important of the seven hills of Ancient Rome. As the political and religious heart of Rome the hill became a symbol of Rome's reign as Caput Mundi, capital of the world. Excavations of the hill have uncovered traces of a settlement that was built here in the Iron Age. The hill was an ideal site for the early settlers since it was situated right near a ford across the Tiber and its steep rocky slopes provided a natural protection against enemies. The hill had two summits: the Arx to the north and the lower but larger Capitolium to the south. The area in between was called the Asylum. It was a place where refugees from other states could find shelter. Even before the Republican era Rome's kings built massive temples on the Capitoline Hill. They came to symbolize Rome's position as Caput Mundi, which literally means 'head of the world'. During the exile of the popes in Avignon Rome became depopulated and the Capitoline Hill was even used as a goat pasture, which gave it the name Monte Caprino (goat mountain). By the sixteenth century the Renaissance brought a revival of Rome's grandeur and with it a complete redesign of its heart, the Capitoline Hill. In 1536 Michelangelo drew up plans for a new square between the two hilltops, the Piazza del Campidoglio.
The Capitoline Hill is the smallest and most important of the seven hills of Ancient Rome. As the political and religious heart of Rome the hill became a symbol of Rome's reign as Caput Mundi, capital of the world. Excavations of the hill have uncovered traces of a settlement that was built here in the Iron Age. The hill was an ideal site for the early settlers since it was situated right near a ford across the Tiber and its steep rocky slopes provided a natural protection against enemies. The hill had two summits: the Arx to the north and the lower but larger Capitolium to the south. The area in between was called the Asylum. It was a place where refugees from other states could find shelter. Even before the Republican era Rome's kings built massive temples on the Capitoline Hill. They came to symbolize Rome's position as Caput Mundi, which literally means 'head of the world'. During the exile of the popes in Avignon Rome became depopulated and the Capitoline Hill was even used as a goat pasture, which gave it the name Monte Caprino (goat mountain). By the sixteenth century the Renaissance brought a revival of Rome's grandeur and with it a complete redesign of its heart, the Capitoline Hill. In 1536 Michelangelo drew up plans for a new square between the two hilltops, the Piazza del Campidoglio.
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Capuchin Crypt
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Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone
Chiesa di Santa Brigida
To the right of the Farnese Palace is a small Swedish church dedicated to Saint Bridget of Sweden, who travelled to Rome in 1350 where she started a new order. In 1354 Bridget moved to a house on the Farnese square where she lived until her death in 1373. The house was later converted into a church dedicated to the Saint. The current Baroque facade dates from the seventeenth century. |
Circus Maximus
The Circus Maximus was the largest stadium in ancient Rome. Popular chariot races were held here for almost a millennium. At one point the Circus could seat 250,000 people, one quarter of Rome's population. The origins of the Circus Maximus go back to the sixth century BC when Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, created a track between the Palatine and Aventine hills. The first permanent starting gates were created in 329 BC. The Circus Maximus was occasionally used for events such as processions or gladiator combats, but on most days only chariot races with quadrigaes, pulled by four horses, were held here. The races themselves were wildly popular with people fanatically supporting one of the four factions: red, white, green and blue representing summer, winter, spring and autumn respectively. Bets were laid on one of the factions and supporters of the different factions often clashed, sometimes resulting in deaths among the spectators. The last race in the Circus Maximus was held in 549 AD, almost a millennium after the first races were held at this location. Today only the layout of the original circus can be seen in what is now a large grassland. Most of the original structure was used as building material for medieval and Renaissance constructions.
The Circus Maximus was the largest stadium in ancient Rome. Popular chariot races were held here for almost a millennium. At one point the Circus could seat 250,000 people, one quarter of Rome's population. The origins of the Circus Maximus go back to the sixth century BC when Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, created a track between the Palatine and Aventine hills. The first permanent starting gates were created in 329 BC. The Circus Maximus was occasionally used for events such as processions or gladiator combats, but on most days only chariot races with quadrigaes, pulled by four horses, were held here. The races themselves were wildly popular with people fanatically supporting one of the four factions: red, white, green and blue representing summer, winter, spring and autumn respectively. Bets were laid on one of the factions and supporters of the different factions often clashed, sometimes resulting in deaths among the spectators. The last race in the Circus Maximus was held in 549 AD, almost a millennium after the first races were held at this location. Today only the layout of the original circus can be seen in what is now a large grassland. Most of the original structure was used as building material for medieval and Renaissance constructions.
The Colosseum
The Flavian emperors attempted to tone down the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare. Around 70-72, Vespasian returned to the Roman people the lush land near the center of the city, where Nero had built an enormous palace for himself after a great fire ripped through Rome in A.D. 64. On the site of that Golden Palace, he decreed, would be built a new amphitheater where the public could enjoy gladiatorial combats and other forms of entertainment. After nearly a decade of construction,Titus officially dedicated the Colosseum in A.D. 80 with a festival including 100 days of games. The final stages of construction of the Colosseum were completed under the reign of Titus’ brother and successor, Domitian.
Measuring some 620 by 513 feet, the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in the Roman world. Unlike many earlier amphitheaters, which had been dug into hillsides to provide adequate support, the Colosseum was a freestanding structure made of stone and concrete. The distinctive exterior had three stories of arched entrances–a total of around 80–supported by semi-circular columns. Inside, the Colosseum had seating for more than 50,000 spectators. Awnings were unfurled from the top story in order to protect the audience from the hot Roman sun as they watched gladiatorial combats, hunts, wild animal fights and larger combats such as mock naval engagements (for which the arena was flooded with water) put on at great expense. The vast majority of the combatants who fought in front of Colosseum audiences in Ancient Rome were men (though there were some female gladiators). Gladiators were generally slaves, condemned criminals or prisoners of war.
In the centuries to come, the Colosseum was abandoned completely, and used as a quarry for numerous building projects. Beginning in the 18th century, however, various popes sought to conserve the arena as a sacred Christian site, though it is in fact uncertain whether early Christian martyrs met their fate in the Colosseum, as has been speculated.
The Flavian emperors attempted to tone down the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare. Around 70-72, Vespasian returned to the Roman people the lush land near the center of the city, where Nero had built an enormous palace for himself after a great fire ripped through Rome in A.D. 64. On the site of that Golden Palace, he decreed, would be built a new amphitheater where the public could enjoy gladiatorial combats and other forms of entertainment. After nearly a decade of construction,Titus officially dedicated the Colosseum in A.D. 80 with a festival including 100 days of games. The final stages of construction of the Colosseum were completed under the reign of Titus’ brother and successor, Domitian.
Measuring some 620 by 513 feet, the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in the Roman world. Unlike many earlier amphitheaters, which had been dug into hillsides to provide adequate support, the Colosseum was a freestanding structure made of stone and concrete. The distinctive exterior had three stories of arched entrances–a total of around 80–supported by semi-circular columns. Inside, the Colosseum had seating for more than 50,000 spectators. Awnings were unfurled from the top story in order to protect the audience from the hot Roman sun as they watched gladiatorial combats, hunts, wild animal fights and larger combats such as mock naval engagements (for which the arena was flooded with water) put on at great expense. The vast majority of the combatants who fought in front of Colosseum audiences in Ancient Rome were men (though there were some female gladiators). Gladiators were generally slaves, condemned criminals or prisoners of war.
In the centuries to come, the Colosseum was abandoned completely, and used as a quarry for numerous building projects. Beginning in the 18th century, however, various popes sought to conserve the arena as a sacred Christian site, though it is in fact uncertain whether early Christian martyrs met their fate in the Colosseum, as has been speculated.
Fountain of the Four Rivers
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Gesu
Officially known as "The Church of the Most Holy Name of Jesus", the church most often referred to as simply "Gesu" was the first church built by the Jesuits, a religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola. The order was recognized by pope Paul III in 1540 and was one of the driving forces of the counter-reformation. Funds for the construction of the church were provided by the duke of Gandia, one of the early Jesuit followers. Michelangelo designed the first plans for the church and construction started in 1554 but was soon halted due to papal opposition. After the death of Loyola a new design was created by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, the favorite architect of cardinal Alessandro Farnese, a grandson of pope Paul III. Construction resumed in 1568. After Vignola's death in 1573 the Gesu church was completed by the Jesuits Giovanni Tristano and Giovanni de Rosis. The church was consecrated in 1584. Its design became the model for many other Jesuit churches built around the world.
Officially known as "The Church of the Most Holy Name of Jesus", the church most often referred to as simply "Gesu" was the first church built by the Jesuits, a religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola. The order was recognized by pope Paul III in 1540 and was one of the driving forces of the counter-reformation. Funds for the construction of the church were provided by the duke of Gandia, one of the early Jesuit followers. Michelangelo designed the first plans for the church and construction started in 1554 but was soon halted due to papal opposition. After the death of Loyola a new design was created by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, the favorite architect of cardinal Alessandro Farnese, a grandson of pope Paul III. Construction resumed in 1568. After Vignola's death in 1573 the Gesu church was completed by the Jesuits Giovanni Tristano and Giovanni de Rosis. The church was consecrated in 1584. Its design became the model for many other Jesuit churches built around the world.
Largo di Torre Argentina
Archaeologists from the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) have pinpointed the exact spot where Roman senators stabbed Julius Caesar to death on March 14, 44 B.C. On the Ides of March Caesar arrived at Pompey’s Theater for a Senate session and entered the Curia of Pompey, taking his place in a chair to address the hundreds of lawmakers gathered before him. Led by Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus, a group of senators then stepped forward with hidden daggers and stabbed Caesar 23 times. The complex was built around 52 B.C. by Caesar’s rival Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, who would succumb to his own assassination in 48 B.C. Located in the center of Rome, Largo di Torre Argentina is known today for its thriving cat sanctuary.Largo di Torre Argentina |
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Mamertine Prison
The Mamertine Prison is an ancient prison at the foot of the Capitoline Hill in Rome. The Mamertine Prison consists of two underground cells where Rome's vanquished enemies were imprisoned and usually died, of either starvation or strangulation. Famous prisoners here include the Goth Jugurtha, the indomitable Gaul Vercingetorix and, according to legend, St. Peter. There is no archaeological evidence or early written account that Peter was here, but the legend had taken root by the 5th century and the prison attracted early pilgrims.
The Mamertine Prison is an ancient prison at the foot of the Capitoline Hill in Rome. The Mamertine Prison consists of two underground cells where Rome's vanquished enemies were imprisoned and usually died, of either starvation or strangulation. Famous prisoners here include the Goth Jugurtha, the indomitable Gaul Vercingetorix and, according to legend, St. Peter. There is no archaeological evidence or early written account that Peter was here, but the legend had taken root by the 5th century and the prison attracted early pilgrims.
Palatine Hill
Palatine Hill is the centermost of the famous seven hills of Rome. Evidence from archaeological digs demonstrates that the hill was inhabited as long ago as the tenth century BC. The hill has a strong link to Roman mythology. It is believed that on Palatine Hill, the twins Romulus and Remus were found in the Lupercal Cave by their four-legged shepherd mother, who raised them. Ultimately, this is where Romulus decided to build the city. Therefore, it was on this hill that the Roman Empire began. The hill became synonymous with palaces; in fact in many languages, including English, the word 'palace' is derived from 'palatine'. During the Middle Ages, churches and convents were built on Palatine Hill.
Palatine Hill is the centermost of the famous seven hills of Rome. Evidence from archaeological digs demonstrates that the hill was inhabited as long ago as the tenth century BC. The hill has a strong link to Roman mythology. It is believed that on Palatine Hill, the twins Romulus and Remus were found in the Lupercal Cave by their four-legged shepherd mother, who raised them. Ultimately, this is where Romulus decided to build the city. Therefore, it was on this hill that the Roman Empire began. The hill became synonymous with palaces; in fact in many languages, including English, the word 'palace' is derived from 'palatine'. During the Middle Ages, churches and convents were built on Palatine Hill.
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The Pantheon
Before the current Pantheon was built, two other buildings occupied the same site. The first one, a traditional rectilinear, T-shaped structure was built in 27-25 BC by general Marcus Agrippa, son-in-law of Emperor Augustus. The temple was dedicated to the gods Mars and Venus. It burned down in 80 AD but was rebuilt by Emperor Domitian. In 110 AD the building was struck by lightning and burned down again. In 118 AD Emperor Hadrian ordered for the Pantheon to be rebuilt again but this time in a totally different, circular design. It was completed seven years later, in 125 AD. This latest version of the Pantheon would stand the test of time much better: it is still standing almost intact today. The most important problem the Romans faced during the construction of the Pantheon was the massive weight of the large dome. In order to support it without proper reinforcement as is common today, the thickness of the walls was gradually decreased as the height increased. The Romans also used a different type of concrete for the dome than for the walls. At the base very thick (6m, 20ft) walls were constructed. At the top of the dome, a lighter type of concrete was used and near the oculus it is only 7.5 ft or 2.3 m thick. The use of coffers in the ceiling and the opening at the top also helped reduce the weight of the dome. It was the largest dome in the world until 1436 when the Florence Cathedral was constructed. Originally a temple for all pagan gods, the temple was converted into a church in 609. The Pantheon now contains the tombs of the famous artist Raphael and of several Italian kings. |
Piazza del Campidoglio
When Emperor Charles V planned a visit to Rome in 1536, the muddy Capitoline Hill was in such a derelict state that pope Paul III Farnese asked Michelangelo to design a new square, the Piazza del Campidoglio (Capitoline Square). Michelangelo came up with an original, trapezoidal design for the square with an intriguing oval shaped ground pattern. Construction of the square started in 1546 but only the staircase at the entrance of the Palazzo Senatorio was realized when Michelangelo died in 1564. The project was finally completed in the seventeenth century according to Michelangelo's designs. The two large classical statues of the Dioscuri Castor and Pollux that adorn the top also date back to the antiquity. They originally stood near the Temple of Castor and Pollux and were placed here in 1583. In the center of the square stands an equestrian statue of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The bronze gilded statue only survived because it was thought to depict Emperor Constantine, the first Christian emperor. It wasn't until the fifteenth century that its real identity was discovered. If it had been discovered any sooner, the statue most likely would have been melted down like so many ancient statues of 'pagans'.
When Emperor Charles V planned a visit to Rome in 1536, the muddy Capitoline Hill was in such a derelict state that pope Paul III Farnese asked Michelangelo to design a new square, the Piazza del Campidoglio (Capitoline Square). Michelangelo came up with an original, trapezoidal design for the square with an intriguing oval shaped ground pattern. Construction of the square started in 1546 but only the staircase at the entrance of the Palazzo Senatorio was realized when Michelangelo died in 1564. The project was finally completed in the seventeenth century according to Michelangelo's designs. The two large classical statues of the Dioscuri Castor and Pollux that adorn the top also date back to the antiquity. They originally stood near the Temple of Castor and Pollux and were placed here in 1583. In the center of the square stands an equestrian statue of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The bronze gilded statue only survived because it was thought to depict Emperor Constantine, the first Christian emperor. It wasn't until the fifteenth century that its real identity was discovered. If it had been discovered any sooner, the statue most likely would have been melted down like so many ancient statues of 'pagans'.
Piazza Farnese
The two fountains at the center of the square were created from granite bathtubs taken from the ancient Baths of Caracalla. Each fountain is crowned with a stone sculpted iris, the symbol of the Farnese family who were responsible for the Farnese Palace that gives the square its name.
The two fountains at the center of the square were created from granite bathtubs taken from the ancient Baths of Caracalla. Each fountain is crowned with a stone sculpted iris, the symbol of the Farnese family who were responsible for the Farnese Palace that gives the square its name.
Piazza Navona
The square is built on the former Stadium of Domitian, built by Emperor Domitian in 86 AD. The stadium was known as 'Circus Agonalis'. It is believed that over time the name changed to 'in agone' to 'navone' and eventually to 'navona'. In the fifteenth century the stadium was paved over to create the Navona square. The main attraction of Piazza Navona is the trio of fountains that adorn the square. The central and largest fountain is the Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Fountain of the Four Rivers). It was constructed between 1647 and 1651 on request of pope Innocent X. The design of the fountain was first commissioned to Borromini, but it was ultimately handed to his rival Bernini. The fountain features four figures, each representing a river from a different continent - the Nile, Ganges, Danube and Rio de la Plata. The statues are at the base of a rock supporting an obelisk, originally located at the Circus of Maxentius. Another highlight at Navona square is the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone. It was commissioned in 1652 by Pope Innocent X and built on the site where according to legend, St. Agnes was stripped naked, but miraculously saved from disgrace by extraordinary growth of hair. Piazza Navona |
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Quirinale Palace
Pope Gregory XIII chose the highest of Rome's seven hills as a summer residence for the popes. Work began in 1574. The Piazza del Quirinale has buildings on three sides while the fourth is open, giving a splendid view of the city to the great dome of St Peter's in the distance. After the unification of Italy in 1870, it became the official residence of the king , then in 1947 of the president of the republic.
Pope Gregory XIII chose the highest of Rome's seven hills as a summer residence for the popes. Work began in 1574. The Piazza del Quirinale has buildings on three sides while the fourth is open, giving a splendid view of the city to the great dome of St Peter's in the distance. After the unification of Italy in 1870, it became the official residence of the king , then in 1947 of the president of the republic.
Roman Forum
Until 509 BC, when Rome became a republic, the city was reigned by an Etruscan dynasty of Tarquin Kings. They built a sewer, the 'Cloaca Maxima', to drain water from the marshlands of the valley between the Palatine, Capitoline and Esquiline hills to the Tiber river. From then on the area became a center of activity and it was the political heart of Rome until the fall of the Roman Empire more than one thousand years later. It was the site of the first forum. Here, triumphal processions took place, elections were held and the Senate assembled. Today, remains of many buildings from different periods are visible; the forum was littered with temples, basilicas and triumphal arches.
Until 509 BC, when Rome became a republic, the city was reigned by an Etruscan dynasty of Tarquin Kings. They built a sewer, the 'Cloaca Maxima', to drain water from the marshlands of the valley between the Palatine, Capitoline and Esquiline hills to the Tiber river. From then on the area became a center of activity and it was the political heart of Rome until the fall of the Roman Empire more than one thousand years later. It was the site of the first forum. Here, triumphal processions took place, elections were held and the Senate assembled. Today, remains of many buildings from different periods are visible; the forum was littered with temples, basilicas and triumphal arches.
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Sant'Ignacio di Loyola
Sant'Ignazio is the second most important Jesuit church in Rome, after the nearby Gesu church, where Ignatius is buried. Construction of the Sant'Ignazio church started in 1626 with funds provided by cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi, a nephew of pope Gregory XV. The church was built for the Collegio Romano, a Jesuit school, and replaced an older, smaller church. It was dedicated to St. Ignatius, who had only a few years before, in 1622, been declared a saint. The church was only fully completed in 1685. The planned dome was never realized, allegedly because it would block the sun from entering the library of the Collegio Romano. Pozzo masterfully integrated his fresco into the overall architecture. If you stand on the marble disc at the center of the church, you'll see the full effect of the perspective rendering: figures that are in reality painted horizontally seem to rise up towards heaven. From here the dome also seems to have a real vaulting, while it is in fact completely flat. |
Scala Santa
Spanish Steps
At the foot of the Spanish Steps lies the Piazza di Spagna (Spanish Square). The long, triangular square is named after the Spanish Embassy to the Holy See. In the seventeenth century, the area around the embassy was even considered Spanish territory. The Piazza di Spagna (Spanish Square) is connected to the Trinit dei Monti, a French church situated atop a hill, via a long staircase, the Scalinata della Trinit dei Monti, better known as the Spanish Steps. The elegant staircase consists of 137 steps over twelve different flights. It has an irregular albeit symmetric structure. In front of the Spanish Steps stands the Fontana della Barcaccia, a rather sober but elegant looking fountain commissioned by pope Urban VIII and designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Bernini's design, which shows a flooded boat at the center of a basin, was inspired by the flooding of the Tiber in 1598, when a small boat stranded here after the water subsided.
At the foot of the Spanish Steps lies the Piazza di Spagna (Spanish Square). The long, triangular square is named after the Spanish Embassy to the Holy See. In the seventeenth century, the area around the embassy was even considered Spanish territory. The Piazza di Spagna (Spanish Square) is connected to the Trinit dei Monti, a French church situated atop a hill, via a long staircase, the Scalinata della Trinit dei Monti, better known as the Spanish Steps. The elegant staircase consists of 137 steps over twelve different flights. It has an irregular albeit symmetric structure. In front of the Spanish Steps stands the Fontana della Barcaccia, a rather sober but elegant looking fountain commissioned by pope Urban VIII and designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Bernini's design, which shows a flooded boat at the center of a basin, was inspired by the flooding of the Tiber in 1598, when a small boat stranded here after the water subsided.
Temple of Hadrian
The Temple of Hadrian was built in 145 AD by Emperor Antoninus Pius, successor of the deified Hadrian, to whom the temple was dedicated. The temple was situated at the Campus Martius (Field of Mars). A mere eleven columns have survived the times; all were part of the north side of the temple. At the end of the seventeenth century pope Innocent XII commissioned Italian architect Carlo Fontana with the construction of a new papal customs office at the site of the Temple of Hadrian. Fontana, who worked with his son Francesco on the project, integrated the remaining columns of the temple in the new building, which was completed in 1700 after ten years of construction. Today the building houses the Borsa Valori di Roma, Rome's stock exchange.
The Temple of Hadrian was built in 145 AD by Emperor Antoninus Pius, successor of the deified Hadrian, to whom the temple was dedicated. The temple was situated at the Campus Martius (Field of Mars). A mere eleven columns have survived the times; all were part of the north side of the temple. At the end of the seventeenth century pope Innocent XII commissioned Italian architect Carlo Fontana with the construction of a new papal customs office at the site of the Temple of Hadrian. Fontana, who worked with his son Francesco on the project, integrated the remaining columns of the temple in the new building, which was completed in 1700 after ten years of construction. Today the building houses the Borsa Valori di Roma, Rome's stock exchange.
Tiber Island
The island, which measures about 270 meters (885 feet) in length and 67 meters (220 feet) in breadth at its widest point, was important in the early Roman period since it facilitated the crossing of the river. Legend has it that Tiber Island was formed when Roman citizens expelled the last of the Tarquin Kings. In anger the insurgents threw wheat sheaves they had stolen from the king into the river. Dirt and silt accumulated around the wheat and soon formed an island. In reality however the island was formed long before the Etruscans ruled over Rome, probably by natural means due to the river becoming wider and its current less strong. In 293 BC Rome was hit by a plague and the Romans decided to send a delegation to the Greek city of Epidaurus to bring home a sacred snake, the symbolic attribute of Asclepius, the god of healing. When the delegation returned home their boat ran aground near the Tiber Island but the snake was able to escape the sinking ship and curl around a tree branch, safely reaching the island. Today the image of a snake entwined around a staff is still widely used as a symbol for medicine. The Romans decided that the snake had selected the island as the place for a temple dedicated to Aesculapius.
The island, which measures about 270 meters (885 feet) in length and 67 meters (220 feet) in breadth at its widest point, was important in the early Roman period since it facilitated the crossing of the river. Legend has it that Tiber Island was formed when Roman citizens expelled the last of the Tarquin Kings. In anger the insurgents threw wheat sheaves they had stolen from the king into the river. Dirt and silt accumulated around the wheat and soon formed an island. In reality however the island was formed long before the Etruscans ruled over Rome, probably by natural means due to the river becoming wider and its current less strong. In 293 BC Rome was hit by a plague and the Romans decided to send a delegation to the Greek city of Epidaurus to bring home a sacred snake, the symbolic attribute of Asclepius, the god of healing. When the delegation returned home their boat ran aground near the Tiber Island but the snake was able to escape the sinking ship and curl around a tree branch, safely reaching the island. Today the image of a snake entwined around a staff is still widely used as a symbol for medicine. The Romans decided that the snake had selected the island as the place for a temple dedicated to Aesculapius.
Tiber River
The Tiber is one of longest rivers in Italy. The Tiber flows from the Appenines at Mount Fumaiolo through Rome and into the Tyrrhenian Sea at Ostia. The Tiber was originally called Albulula because it was so white, but it was renamed Tiberis after Tiberinus, who was a king of Alba Longa who drowned in the river. The Tiber was the natural highway for traffic in Latium, and provided an early defense against neighbors on the other side of the river, which in the area of Rome runs approximately southwards. The Veientine Wars were fought over control of the Tiber. The Tiber was connected with the Cloaca Maxima, the sewer system of Rome.
The two bridges that have connected the island with the rest of Rome since the antiquity are still more or less intact two thousand years after their construction. The oldest surviving bridge is the Ponte Fabricio, built in 62 BC as the Pons Fabricius to replace a wooden bridge. On the opposite side the Ponte Cestio connects Tiber Island with the Trastevere neighborhood. This bridge was built in 42 BC as the Pons Cestius. Only the central arch is still original. From the two bridges you can see the remains of an even older bridge, the Pons Aemilius, which was first built in 179 BC. In 142 BC it was rebuilt as the first stone bridge in Rome. The bridge was destroyed during the flood of 1598, when water rose to almost twenty meters (65 ft) above sea level. It was never repaired and the single surviving arch is now known as Ponte Rotto (broken bridge).
The Tiber is one of longest rivers in Italy. The Tiber flows from the Appenines at Mount Fumaiolo through Rome and into the Tyrrhenian Sea at Ostia. The Tiber was originally called Albulula because it was so white, but it was renamed Tiberis after Tiberinus, who was a king of Alba Longa who drowned in the river. The Tiber was the natural highway for traffic in Latium, and provided an early defense against neighbors on the other side of the river, which in the area of Rome runs approximately southwards. The Veientine Wars were fought over control of the Tiber. The Tiber was connected with the Cloaca Maxima, the sewer system of Rome.
The two bridges that have connected the island with the rest of Rome since the antiquity are still more or less intact two thousand years after their construction. The oldest surviving bridge is the Ponte Fabricio, built in 62 BC as the Pons Fabricius to replace a wooden bridge. On the opposite side the Ponte Cestio connects Tiber Island with the Trastevere neighborhood. This bridge was built in 42 BC as the Pons Cestius. Only the central arch is still original. From the two bridges you can see the remains of an even older bridge, the Pons Aemilius, which was first built in 179 BC. In 142 BC it was rebuilt as the first stone bridge in Rome. The bridge was destroyed during the flood of 1598, when water rose to almost twenty meters (65 ft) above sea level. It was never repaired and the single surviving arch is now known as Ponte Rotto (broken bridge).
Trajan's Column
The column including its base is forty-two meters tall (138ft). This was exactly the height of the hill that stood at this site. It had been leveled to create open space for the construction of Trajan’s Forum. The column consists of twenty-nine pieces of white marble, the largest one weighing up to seventy-seven tons. A band of beautifully carved reliefs winds around the column. There are more than two thousand carved figures on the column that depict the story of Trajan's Dacian war campaigns conducted between 101-102 and 105-106 AD. The width of the band varies from 60cm (2ft) at the bottom to 120cm at the top so that the carved figures would seem to have an equal height when seen from the ground. The story starts with soldiers preparing for the war and ends with the Dacians being ousted from their homeland. The reliefs were not always in plain white: originally they were partly gilded and, like many ancient Roman monuments and buildings, brightly colored. In 1587 the statue was replaced again, this time by one of St. Peter. Legend has it that the column was saved from demolition thanks to pope Gregory the Great (590-604). He was so moved by a relief depicting Trajan helping the mother of a dead soldier, that he begged god to save Trajan's pagan soul from hell. God then told the pope that Trajan's soul had been saved. The legend also claims that Trajan's tongue was still intact when his ashes were excavated. The tongue told about his rescue from hell. The area around the column was then declared sacred, thus saving the column from demolition.
The column including its base is forty-two meters tall (138ft). This was exactly the height of the hill that stood at this site. It had been leveled to create open space for the construction of Trajan’s Forum. The column consists of twenty-nine pieces of white marble, the largest one weighing up to seventy-seven tons. A band of beautifully carved reliefs winds around the column. There are more than two thousand carved figures on the column that depict the story of Trajan's Dacian war campaigns conducted between 101-102 and 105-106 AD. The width of the band varies from 60cm (2ft) at the bottom to 120cm at the top so that the carved figures would seem to have an equal height when seen from the ground. The story starts with soldiers preparing for the war and ends with the Dacians being ousted from their homeland. The reliefs were not always in plain white: originally they were partly gilded and, like many ancient Roman monuments and buildings, brightly colored. In 1587 the statue was replaced again, this time by one of St. Peter. Legend has it that the column was saved from demolition thanks to pope Gregory the Great (590-604). He was so moved by a relief depicting Trajan helping the mother of a dead soldier, that he begged god to save Trajan's pagan soul from hell. God then told the pope that Trajan's soul had been saved. The legend also claims that Trajan's tongue was still intact when his ashes were excavated. The tongue told about his rescue from hell. The area around the column was then declared sacred, thus saving the column from demolition.
Victor Emmanuel Monument
As King of Sardinia and victor over the Austrian army in Lombardy, Victor Emmanuel had become a symbol of the movement for a united Italy. After his army joined forces with Garibaldi and defeated the papal army, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861 with Victor Emmanuel as king. In 1885 construction of the monument started. The new monument and national symbol of Italy was inaugurated in 1911, at the fiftieth anniversary of the kingdom. The Monument to Victor Emanuel II, also known as 'Il Vittoriano' and sometimes also referred to as the Altare della Patria (Altar of the Nation), is a bombastic monument built with sparkling white marble from Botticino in the province of Brescia. It is decorated with numerous allegorical statues, reliefs and murals, created by artists from all corners of the country. At the center of the monument is the colossal equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel, the 'Father of the Nation'. The statue, the work of sculptor Enrico Chiaradia, weighs fifty tons and measures twelve meters long (39ft). It rests on a pedestal decorated with allegorical reliefs representing Italian cities. At the foot of the statue is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, inaugurated in 1921. Guards of honor, alternating selected from the marine, infantry and air divisions, stand on guard here day and night.
As King of Sardinia and victor over the Austrian army in Lombardy, Victor Emmanuel had become a symbol of the movement for a united Italy. After his army joined forces with Garibaldi and defeated the papal army, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861 with Victor Emmanuel as king. In 1885 construction of the monument started. The new monument and national symbol of Italy was inaugurated in 1911, at the fiftieth anniversary of the kingdom. The Monument to Victor Emanuel II, also known as 'Il Vittoriano' and sometimes also referred to as the Altare della Patria (Altar of the Nation), is a bombastic monument built with sparkling white marble from Botticino in the province of Brescia. It is decorated with numerous allegorical statues, reliefs and murals, created by artists from all corners of the country. At the center of the monument is the colossal equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel, the 'Father of the Nation'. The statue, the work of sculptor Enrico Chiaradia, weighs fifty tons and measures twelve meters long (39ft). It rests on a pedestal decorated with allegorical reliefs representing Italian cities. At the foot of the statue is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, inaugurated in 1921. Guards of honor, alternating selected from the marine, infantry and air divisions, stand on guard here day and night.
Siena
According to legend, Siena was founded by the son of Remus, and the symbol of the wolf feeding the twins Romulus and Remus is as ubiquitous in Siena as in Rome. In reality the city was probably of Etruscan origin, although it wasn’t until the 1st century BC, when the Romans established a military colony there called Sena Julia, that it began to grow into a proper town.
In the 12th century, Siena’s wealth, size and power grew along with its involvement in commerce and trade. Its rivalry with neighboring Florence also grew proportionately, leading to numerous wars during the first half of the 13th century between Guelph Florence and Ghibelline Siena. In 1230 Florence besieged Siena and catapulted dung and donkeys over its walls. Siena’s revenge came at the Battle of Montaperti in 1260 but victory was short-lived. Only 10 years later the Tuscan Ghibellines were defeated by Charles of Anjou and for almost a century Siena was allied to Florence. This was when Siena, ruled by the Council of Nine (a bourgeois group constantly bickering with the aristocracy), enjoyed its greatest prosperity. It was the Council that directed the construction of so many of the fine buildings in the Sienese-Gothic style that give the city its striking appearance. The Sienese school of painting had its origins at this time with Guido da Siena and reached its peak in the early 14th century, when artists such as Duccio di Buoninsegna and Ambrogio Lorenzetti were at work. A plague outbreak in 1348 killed two-thirds of the city’s 100,000 inhabitants and led to a period of decline. At the end of the 14th century, Siena came under the control of Milan’s Visconti family, followed in the next century by the autocratic patrician Pandolfo Petrucci. Under Petrucci the city’s fortunes improved somewhat until the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V conquered it in 1555 after a two-year siege that left thousands of people dead. He handed the city over to Cosimo I de’Medici, who barred the inhabitants from operating banks and thus severely curtailed Siena’s power. Siena was home to Santa Caterina, one of Italy’s most famous saints. Today Siena relies on tourism for its prosperity and the success of its Monte dei Paschi di Siena bank, founded in 1472 and now one of the city’s largest employers.
In the 12th century, Siena’s wealth, size and power grew along with its involvement in commerce and trade. Its rivalry with neighboring Florence also grew proportionately, leading to numerous wars during the first half of the 13th century between Guelph Florence and Ghibelline Siena. In 1230 Florence besieged Siena and catapulted dung and donkeys over its walls. Siena’s revenge came at the Battle of Montaperti in 1260 but victory was short-lived. Only 10 years later the Tuscan Ghibellines were defeated by Charles of Anjou and for almost a century Siena was allied to Florence. This was when Siena, ruled by the Council of Nine (a bourgeois group constantly bickering with the aristocracy), enjoyed its greatest prosperity. It was the Council that directed the construction of so many of the fine buildings in the Sienese-Gothic style that give the city its striking appearance. The Sienese school of painting had its origins at this time with Guido da Siena and reached its peak in the early 14th century, when artists such as Duccio di Buoninsegna and Ambrogio Lorenzetti were at work. A plague outbreak in 1348 killed two-thirds of the city’s 100,000 inhabitants and led to a period of decline. At the end of the 14th century, Siena came under the control of Milan’s Visconti family, followed in the next century by the autocratic patrician Pandolfo Petrucci. Under Petrucci the city’s fortunes improved somewhat until the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V conquered it in 1555 after a two-year siege that left thousands of people dead. He handed the city over to Cosimo I de’Medici, who barred the inhabitants from operating banks and thus severely curtailed Siena’s power. Siena was home to Santa Caterina, one of Italy’s most famous saints. Today Siena relies on tourism for its prosperity and the success of its Monte dei Paschi di Siena bank, founded in 1472 and now one of the city’s largest employers.
Siena Duomo
Siena's Duomo was built between 1215 and 1263 and designed in part by Gothic master Nicola Pisano. His son, Giovanni, drew up the plans for the lower half of the facade, begun in 1285. The facade's upper half was added in the 14th century. The 14th century was a time of great wealth and power for Siena, and plans were made to expand the cathedral into a great church that would dwarf even St. Peter's in Rome. The already-large Duomo would form just the transept of this huge cathedral. Expansion got underway in 1339 with construction on a new nave off the Duomo's right transept. But in 1348, the Black Death swept through the city and killed 4/5 of Siena's population. The giant cathedral was never completed, and the half-finished walls of the Duomo Nuovo (New Cathedral) survive as a monument to Siena's ambition and one-time wealth. In the 19th century, the cathedral was extensively restored, including the addition of golden mosaics on the facade.
The Duomo's unique black-and-white striped campanile dates from 1313, but reflects the Romanesque style. The tall, square belltower has increasing numbers of round-headed arcades with each level and culminates in a pyramid-shaped roof. The south transept has an entrance known as the Porto del Perdono (Door of Forgiveness), which is topped with a medallion bust of the Virgin and Child by Donatello (original in the Museo dell'Opera). The columns between the portals are richly carved with foliage, putti and animals. The existing cathedral was to become merely the transept of a huge structure that would surpass even St. Peter's Basilica. But due to the arrival of the Black Death and political conflict, it was never completed. The unfinished right aisle has been partially filled in to house the Museo dell'Opera, from which one can climb to the facade for fine views.
The library was constructed in about 1492, inspired in part by the opening of the Vatican Library under Pope Sixtus IV in 1475. The ornate marble entrance in the north aisle of the cathedral was sculpted by Lorenzo di Mariano (a.k.a. Marrina). The lunettes bear the coats of arms of Cardinal Francesco and Pius II. The walls of the library are beautifully decorated with ten frescoes by Pinturicchio (1502-07) depicting the eventful life of Pope Pius II. A young Raphael may have been among the pupils who assisted. The walls are lined with display cases carved by Antonio Barili in 1495-96 and filled with an important collection of 30 richly illustrated Renaissance choir books from 1465 to 1515. In the center of the room is an elegant sculptural group of the Three Graces, an ancient Roman copy of a Hellenistic design bought in Rome in 1502 by Cardinal Todeschini to decorate the library.
Siena's Duomo was built between 1215 and 1263 and designed in part by Gothic master Nicola Pisano. His son, Giovanni, drew up the plans for the lower half of the facade, begun in 1285. The facade's upper half was added in the 14th century. The 14th century was a time of great wealth and power for Siena, and plans were made to expand the cathedral into a great church that would dwarf even St. Peter's in Rome. The already-large Duomo would form just the transept of this huge cathedral. Expansion got underway in 1339 with construction on a new nave off the Duomo's right transept. But in 1348, the Black Death swept through the city and killed 4/5 of Siena's population. The giant cathedral was never completed, and the half-finished walls of the Duomo Nuovo (New Cathedral) survive as a monument to Siena's ambition and one-time wealth. In the 19th century, the cathedral was extensively restored, including the addition of golden mosaics on the facade.
The Duomo's unique black-and-white striped campanile dates from 1313, but reflects the Romanesque style. The tall, square belltower has increasing numbers of round-headed arcades with each level and culminates in a pyramid-shaped roof. The south transept has an entrance known as the Porto del Perdono (Door of Forgiveness), which is topped with a medallion bust of the Virgin and Child by Donatello (original in the Museo dell'Opera). The columns between the portals are richly carved with foliage, putti and animals. The existing cathedral was to become merely the transept of a huge structure that would surpass even St. Peter's Basilica. But due to the arrival of the Black Death and political conflict, it was never completed. The unfinished right aisle has been partially filled in to house the Museo dell'Opera, from which one can climb to the facade for fine views.
The library was constructed in about 1492, inspired in part by the opening of the Vatican Library under Pope Sixtus IV in 1475. The ornate marble entrance in the north aisle of the cathedral was sculpted by Lorenzo di Mariano (a.k.a. Marrina). The lunettes bear the coats of arms of Cardinal Francesco and Pius II. The walls of the library are beautifully decorated with ten frescoes by Pinturicchio (1502-07) depicting the eventful life of Pope Pius II. A young Raphael may have been among the pupils who assisted. The walls are lined with display cases carved by Antonio Barili in 1495-96 and filled with an important collection of 30 richly illustrated Renaissance choir books from 1465 to 1515. In the center of the room is an elegant sculptural group of the Three Graces, an ancient Roman copy of a Hellenistic design bought in Rome in 1502 by Cardinal Todeschini to decorate the library.
Piazza del Campo (Il Campo)
Here the Sienese organism their spectacular and terrible 'games', later replaced by the Palio, where they celebrated and played games of risk (il Campo was the only place where the games were allowed). The market also used to take place here.
Piazza del Campo is a unique place in the whole of the world, starting with the very particular conformation of the ground, which turns the square into a big concave shell. The paving is made of red bricks arranged in fishbone style, divided into a sunburst pattern by nine strips of travertine (in memory of the Government of the Nine, who ruled over the city from 1292 to 1355). The piazza took shape at the end of the 1200s, on a space that was for a long time used for fairs and markets and was situated at a crossroad of important streets. When it was built (the flooring dates back to the 1300s), it managed to hold the entire population of Siena, who gathered here to attend events, tournaments, and buffalo and bull races. There is also the Palazzo Comunale (town hall), unusually built on the lowest part of the square, and also the tall, slender Mangia Tower (or Torre del Mangia) that stands out against the sky (it reaches 102 metres including the lightning conductor). At the base of the Palazzo is the Chapel of the Virgin, or Chapel of the Square, constructed and voted for by the Sienese, after the end of the terrible plague of 1348.
Il Campo has always been the theater of the most important citizens' events and the privileged meeting place of the Sienese. Today it also plays host to the most talked-about popular festival, famous throughout the world: The Palio of Siena. This horse race takes place twice a year, on the 2nd July and on the 16th August.
Here the Sienese organism their spectacular and terrible 'games', later replaced by the Palio, where they celebrated and played games of risk (il Campo was the only place where the games were allowed). The market also used to take place here.
Piazza del Campo is a unique place in the whole of the world, starting with the very particular conformation of the ground, which turns the square into a big concave shell. The paving is made of red bricks arranged in fishbone style, divided into a sunburst pattern by nine strips of travertine (in memory of the Government of the Nine, who ruled over the city from 1292 to 1355). The piazza took shape at the end of the 1200s, on a space that was for a long time used for fairs and markets and was situated at a crossroad of important streets. When it was built (the flooring dates back to the 1300s), it managed to hold the entire population of Siena, who gathered here to attend events, tournaments, and buffalo and bull races. There is also the Palazzo Comunale (town hall), unusually built on the lowest part of the square, and also the tall, slender Mangia Tower (or Torre del Mangia) that stands out against the sky (it reaches 102 metres including the lightning conductor). At the base of the Palazzo is the Chapel of the Virgin, or Chapel of the Square, constructed and voted for by the Sienese, after the end of the terrible plague of 1348.
Il Campo has always been the theater of the most important citizens' events and the privileged meeting place of the Sienese. Today it also plays host to the most talked-about popular festival, famous throughout the world: The Palio of Siena. This horse race takes place twice a year, on the 2nd July and on the 16th August.
San Domenico (St. Dominic's Basilica)
San Domenico is a vast brick church in Siena. Founded by the Dominicans in 1125 as part of their friary, San Domenico is closely associated with St. Catherine of Siena and contains her head in a reliquary. In the summer of 1376, Catherine traveled to Avignon to encourage Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome. Fortified by Catherine’s appeals, Gregory XI returned to Rome, but he died soon after. The current church of San Domenico dates from 1226. It is an enormous, severe structure jutting above a modern section of town and provides good views of the Duomo and Siena's rooftops. St. Catherine's main shrine is down the hill in her family home, and the rest of her body is in a tomb in Santa Maria Sopra Minerva in Rome.
San Domenico is a vast brick church in Siena. Founded by the Dominicans in 1125 as part of their friary, San Domenico is closely associated with St. Catherine of Siena and contains her head in a reliquary. In the summer of 1376, Catherine traveled to Avignon to encourage Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome. Fortified by Catherine’s appeals, Gregory XI returned to Rome, but he died soon after. The current church of San Domenico dates from 1226. It is an enormous, severe structure jutting above a modern section of town and provides good views of the Duomo and Siena's rooftops. St. Catherine's main shrine is down the hill in her family home, and the rest of her body is in a tomb in Santa Maria Sopra Minerva in Rome.
Tivoli
In Cato the Elder's lost story, Origines, there was a story about the city founded by Catillus the Arcadian, who came there having escaped the slaughter at Thebes, Greece. Catillus and his three sons Tiburtus, Coras, and Catillus drove out the Siculi from the Aniene plateau and founded a city they named Tibur in honor of Tiburtus. According to a more historical account, Tibur was instead a colony of Alba Longa. Historical traces of settlement in the area date back to the 13th century BC. Virgil in his Aeneid makes Coras and the younger Catillus twin brothers and the leaders of military forces from Tibur aiding Turnus. From Etruscan times Tibur, a Sabine city, was the seat of the Tiburtine Sibyl. During the Roman age Tibur maintained a certain importance, being on the way that Romans had to follow to cross the mountain regions of the Apennines towards the Abruzzo.
At first an independent ally of Rome, Tibur allied itself with the Gauls in 361 BC. In 338 BC, however, Tibur was defeated and absorbed by the Romans. The city acquired Roman citizenship in 90 BC and became a resort area famed for its beauty and its good water, and was enriched by many Roman villas. The name of the city came to be used in diminutive form as Tiburi instead of Tibur and so transformed through Tibori to Tiboli and finally to Tivoli. But its inhabitants are still called Tiburtini and not Tivolesi. In 547, in the course of the Gothic War, the city was fortified by the Byzantine general Belisarius, but was later destroyed by Totila's army. After the end of the war it became a Byzantine duchy, later absorbed into the Patrimony of St. Peter. After Italy was conquered by Charlemagne, Tivoli was under the authority of a count, representing the emperor.
From the 10th century onwards Tivoli, as an independent commune governed by its elected consuls, was the fiercest rival of Rome in the struggle for the control over the impoverished central Lazio. Emperor Otto III conquered it in 1001, and Tivoli fell under the papal control. In the 13th century the Senate of Rome imposed a tribute on the city, and gave itself the right to appoint a count to govern it in conjunction with the local consuls. During the Renaissance popes and cardinals did not limit their embellishment program to Rome, and erected buildings in Tivoli also. In 1944 Tivoli suffered heavy damage under an Allied bombing.
At first an independent ally of Rome, Tibur allied itself with the Gauls in 361 BC. In 338 BC, however, Tibur was defeated and absorbed by the Romans. The city acquired Roman citizenship in 90 BC and became a resort area famed for its beauty and its good water, and was enriched by many Roman villas. The name of the city came to be used in diminutive form as Tiburi instead of Tibur and so transformed through Tibori to Tiboli and finally to Tivoli. But its inhabitants are still called Tiburtini and not Tivolesi. In 547, in the course of the Gothic War, the city was fortified by the Byzantine general Belisarius, but was later destroyed by Totila's army. After the end of the war it became a Byzantine duchy, later absorbed into the Patrimony of St. Peter. After Italy was conquered by Charlemagne, Tivoli was under the authority of a count, representing the emperor.
From the 10th century onwards Tivoli, as an independent commune governed by its elected consuls, was the fiercest rival of Rome in the struggle for the control over the impoverished central Lazio. Emperor Otto III conquered it in 1001, and Tivoli fell under the papal control. In the 13th century the Senate of Rome imposed a tribute on the city, and gave itself the right to appoint a count to govern it in conjunction with the local consuls. During the Renaissance popes and cardinals did not limit their embellishment program to Rome, and erected buildings in Tivoli also. In 1944 Tivoli suffered heavy damage under an Allied bombing.
Villa d'Este
Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este, after the disappointment of a failed bid for the papacy, retreated to Tivoli. Governor of Tivoli from 1550, he immediately nurtured the idea of realizing a garden in the hanging cliffs of the “Valle gaudente”, but it was only after 1560 that his architectural and iconographic program became clear—brainchild of the painter-architect-archeologist Pirro Ligorio and realized by court architect Alberto Galvani. The rooms of the Palace were decorated under the tutelage of the stars of the late Roman Mannerism. The work was almost complete at the time of the Cardinal’s death (1572). From 1605 Cardinal Alessandro d'Este gave the go-ahead to a new program of interventions not only to restore and repair the vegetation and the waterworks, but also to create a new series of innovations to the layout of the garden and the decorations of the fountains.
In the XVIIIth century the lack of maintenance led to the decay of the complex, which was aggravated by the property's passage to the House of Hapsburg. The garden was slowly abandoned. The state of decay continued without interruption until the middle of the XIXth century, when Gustov von Hohelohe, who obtained in enfiteusi the villa from the Dukes of Modena in 1851, launched a series of works to pull the complex back from its state of ruin. At the outbreak of the first world war the villa became a property of the Italian State, and during the 1920s it was restored and opened to the public. Another, radical restoration was carried out immediately after the Second World War to repair the damage caused by the bombing of 1944. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este, after the disappointment of a failed bid for the papacy, retreated to Tivoli. Governor of Tivoli from 1550, he immediately nurtured the idea of realizing a garden in the hanging cliffs of the “Valle gaudente”, but it was only after 1560 that his architectural and iconographic program became clear—brainchild of the painter-architect-archeologist Pirro Ligorio and realized by court architect Alberto Galvani. The rooms of the Palace were decorated under the tutelage of the stars of the late Roman Mannerism. The work was almost complete at the time of the Cardinal’s death (1572). From 1605 Cardinal Alessandro d'Este gave the go-ahead to a new program of interventions not only to restore and repair the vegetation and the waterworks, but also to create a new series of innovations to the layout of the garden and the decorations of the fountains.
In the XVIIIth century the lack of maintenance led to the decay of the complex, which was aggravated by the property's passage to the House of Hapsburg. The garden was slowly abandoned. The state of decay continued without interruption until the middle of the XIXth century, when Gustov von Hohelohe, who obtained in enfiteusi the villa from the Dukes of Modena in 1851, launched a series of works to pull the complex back from its state of ruin. At the outbreak of the first world war the villa became a property of the Italian State, and during the 1920s it was restored and opened to the public. Another, radical restoration was carried out immediately after the Second World War to repair the damage caused by the bombing of 1944. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Villa Gregoriana
Tivoli was a popular residential and resort town for the ancient Romans, who constructed two temples on the brink of a steep valley alongside the hilltown. The river Aniene plunges down cliffs and along the ravine. The waterfalls and caves here were important and sacred spots. At the valley bottom there was a lake, until a great and destructive flood in 105AD resulted in the waters forcing a way down into the ground and through tunnels to the plains below. After a destructive flood in the 1820s the popes took a hand. Under Pope Gregory XVI, engineers diverted the main flow of the river through two new man-made flood tunnels which channeled the water away from town. These tunnels send the water down cliffs opposite town, creating a vast new waterfall.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century the Italian conservation organization FAI began restoring the overgrown and abandoned site, re-established footpaths and opened the Villa Gregoriana to the public.The principal path through the site winds downhill then up again, from one entrance to the other. There are several alternative routes branching off the path leading to viewpoints and sights. Villa Gregoriana is remarkable for its natural splendours. The Villa is basically a dramatic wooded ravine where visitors follow footpaths past waterfalls, caves and ruins. A panoramic bridge, the Ponte Gregoriano, crosses the valley by the Villa.
Tivoli was a popular residential and resort town for the ancient Romans, who constructed two temples on the brink of a steep valley alongside the hilltown. The river Aniene plunges down cliffs and along the ravine. The waterfalls and caves here were important and sacred spots. At the valley bottom there was a lake, until a great and destructive flood in 105AD resulted in the waters forcing a way down into the ground and through tunnels to the plains below. After a destructive flood in the 1820s the popes took a hand. Under Pope Gregory XVI, engineers diverted the main flow of the river through two new man-made flood tunnels which channeled the water away from town. These tunnels send the water down cliffs opposite town, creating a vast new waterfall.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century the Italian conservation organization FAI began restoring the overgrown and abandoned site, re-established footpaths and opened the Villa Gregoriana to the public.The principal path through the site winds downhill then up again, from one entrance to the other. There are several alternative routes branching off the path leading to viewpoints and sights. Villa Gregoriana is remarkable for its natural splendours. The Villa is basically a dramatic wooded ravine where visitors follow footpaths past waterfalls, caves and ruins. A panoramic bridge, the Ponte Gregoriano, crosses the valley by the Villa.